Optimism is a mental attitude or world view
that interprets situations and events as being best (optimized),
meaning that in some way for factors that may not be fully comprehended, the
present moment is in an optimum state. The concept is typically extended to
include the attitude of hope for future conditions unfolding as optimal as
well. The more broad concept of optimism is the understanding that all of
nature, past, present and future, operates by laws of optimisation along the
lines of Hamilton's principle of optimisation in the
realm of physics. This understanding, although criticized by counter views such
as pessimism,
idealism
and realism, leads to a state of mind that believes
everything is as it should be, and that the future will be as well. A common idiom used to illustrate
optimism versus pessimism is a glass with water at the halfway
point, where the optimist is said to see the glass as half full, but
the pessimist sees the glass as half empty.
The word is originally derived from the Latin optimum, meaning
"best." Being optimistic, in the typical sense of the word,
ultimately means one expects the best possible outcome from any given
situation. This is usually referred to in psychology
as dispositional optimism.
Researchers sometimes operationalize
the term differently depending on their research, however. For example, Martin Seligman
and his fellow researchers define it in terms of explanatory style,
which is based on the way one explains life events. As for any trait
characteristic, there are several ways to evaluate optimism, such as various
forms of the Life Orientation Test, for the original definition of optimism, or
the Attribution Style Questionnaire designed to test optimism in terms of
explanatory style.
While
the habitability
of optimism is largely debatable, most researchers agree that it seems to be a biological trait
to some small degree, but it is also thought that optimism has more to do with environmental factors, making it a largely
learned trait. It has also been suggested that optimism could appear to be a
hereditary trait because it is actually a manifestation of combined traits that
are mostly heritable, like intelligence, temperament
and alcoholism.
Optimism may also be linked to health.
Explanatory style is different, though related
to, the more traditional, narrower definition of optimism. This broader concept
is based on the theory that optimism and pessimism
are drawn from the particular way people explain events. There are three
dimensions within typical explanations, which include internal versus external,
stable versus unstable, and global versus specific. Optimistic justifications
toward negative experiences are attributed to factors outside the self
(external), are not likely to occur consistently (unstable), and are limited
specific life domains (specific). Positive experiences would be optimistically
labeled as the opposite: internal, stable, global..
There
is much debate about the relationship between explanatory style and optimism.
Some researchers argue that there is not much difference at all; optimism is
just the lay term for what scientists call explanatory style. Others argue that
explanatory style is exclusive to its concept and should not be interchangeable
with optimism.
It
is generally thought that, though they should not be used interchangeably,
dispositional optimism and explanatory style are at least marginally related.
Ultimately, the problem is simply that more research must be done to either
define a "bridge" or further differentiate between these concepts.
Philosophers
often link the concept of optimism with the name of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who held that
we live in the best of all possible worlds, or that God
created a physical universe that applies the laws of physics, which Voltaire
famously mocked in his satirical novel Candide.
The philosophical pessimism of William Godwin
demonstrated perhaps even more optimism than Leibniz. He hoped that society
would eventually reach the state where calm reason would replace all violence
and force, that mind could eventually make matter subservient to it, and that
intelligence could discover the secret of immortality.
Much of this philosophy is exemplified in the Houyhnhnms
of Jonathan Swift's
Gulliver's Travels.
The term "panglossianism" describes baseless optimism of
the sort exemplified by the beliefs of Pangloss
from Voltaire's
Candide,
which are the opposite of his fellow traveller Martin's pessimism
and emphasis on free will. The phrase "panglossian pessimism" has
been used to describe the pessimistic position that, since this is the best of
all possible worlds, it is impossible for anything to get any better.
The panglossian paradigm is a term coined by Stephen Jay Gould
and Richard Lewontin to refer to the notion that
everything has specifically adapted to suit specific purposes. Instead, they
argue, accidents and exaptation (the use of old features for new purposes) play an important
role in the process of evolution. Some other scientists however argue the implication
that many (or most) adaptionists are panglossians is a straw man.
Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and
Other Confusions of Our Time Michael Shermer
relates Frank J. Tipler to Voltaire's
character Pangloss
to show how clever people deceive themselves. Shermer explores the psychology
of scholars and business men who give up their careers in their pursuit to
broadcast their paranormal beliefs. In his last chapter, added to the revised
version, Shermer explains that "smart people" can be more susceptible
to believing in weird things.
Optimalism
Optimalism, as defined by Nicholas Rescher,
holds that this universe exists because it is better than the alternatives.
While this philosophy does not exclude the possibility of a deity, it also doesn't
require one, and is compatible with atheism.
The positive psychologist Tal Ben-Shahar
uses optimalism to mean willingness to accept failure while remaining confident
that success will follow, a positive attitude he contrasts with negative perfectionism.[10]
Perfectionism can be defined as a persistent compulsive drive toward
unattainable goals and valuation based solely in terms of accomplishment.
Perfectionists reject the realities and constraints of human ability. They
cannot accept failures, delaying any ambitious and productive behavior in fear
of failure again. This neuroticism can even lead to clinical depression and low productivity. As an
alternative to negative perfectionism Ben-Shahar suggests the adoption of
optimalism. Optimalism allows for failure in pursuit of a goal, and expects
that while the trend of activity will tend towards the positive it is not
necessary to always succeed while striving to attain goals. This basis in
reality prevents the optimalist from being overwhelmed in the face of failure.
Optimalists accept failures and also learn from them, which encourages further
pursuit of achievement. Dr. Tal Ben-Shahar believes that Optimalists and
Perfectionists show distinct different motives. Optimalists tend to have more
intrinsic, inward desires, with a motivation to learn. While perfectionists are
highly motivated by a need to consistently prove themselves worthy.
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